Conducting Forensic Examinations on the Road: Are You
Practicing Your Profession Without a License?
Robert I. Simon, MD, and Daniel W. Shuman, JD
Psychiatrists and other mental health professionals retained in civil or
criminal litigation are frequently required to travel to a state in which they
are not licensed to perform assessments and offer testimony. Adverse
professional and legal consequences may await the unwary peripatetic forensic
expert. Failure to address local practice requirements may result in
disqualification to testify as well as civil and criminal liability,
professional disciplinary action, and denial of liability insurance coverage. In
this article, the authors address preventative measures to avoid charges of
practicing without a license when the forensic expert crosses state lines.
J Am Acad Psychiatry Law 27(1): 75-82, 1999
Forensic psychiatry and psychology are burgeoning subspecialties. One factor
driving this increasing interest in forensic practice is the recent economic
upheaval in psychiatric and psychological practice. However, litigation is often
alien terrain for even the most experienced psychiatrist or psychologist, who
may fail to grasp the irreconcilable conflict between the therapeutic and
forensic roles.1 The psychiatrist's and psychologist's professional
compass, oriented by everyday clinical practice, may fail to provide reliable
direction in the legal setting.
Apart from this important professional disorientation, there is also the
potential for geographic dislocation. A psychiatrist or psychologist who is
retained in civil or criminal litigation may be required to travel to another
state to perform an assessment or to offer testimony where she or he is not
licensed to practice. Most psychiatrists and psychologists are unaware of the
adverse professional and legal consequences that may await them at the end of
this road well traveled. If they fail to address local licensure requirements,
they may not be permitted to testify, may incur civil and criminal liability, or
may face professional disciplinary action, all of which may be reported to the
National Practitioner Data Bank (for all health care practitioners).2
They may also suffer denial of liability insurance coverage for suits brought
while practicing without a license. This is not a matter to which the party who
retained the expert can consent. If expert witnesses are required by statute to
comply with state licensure laws, and failure to comply with these laws is a
criminal offense, then the rule that a party may not give valid consent to a
criminal act (e.g., one cannot consent to be murdered) precludes a party from
consenting to the nonapplication of licensure laws to an expert witness.
These outcomes may strike the unwary psychiatrist or psychologist acting in a
forensic rather than a therapeutic realm as unfair and draconian. Although there
are scattered reports of only a small number of forensic experts having
encountered out-of-state licensure challenges, the more forensic experts respond
to interstate demands for their services, the more likely that these issues will
arise. Thus, psychiatrists and psychologists not licensed where they perform
forensic services may experience increased exposure to charges of practicing
without a license.
Medical and Psychological
Practice Regulations
The language used in defining the practice of medicine and psychology for the
purpose of regulation varies from state to state. However, there are elements
common to each state. For example, all definitions of the practice of medicine
include some variation of diagnosis and treatment. The Maryland Medical Practice
Act,3 typical of such acts, contains the following definition:
"'Practice medicine' means to engage, with or without compensation, in medical:
(I) Diagnosis; (ii) Healing; (iii) Treatment; or (iv) Surgery." The purpose of
an independent psychiatric examination is to arrive at a clinical formulation or
a diagnostic conclusion. Thus, performing an independent psychiatric examination
should be considered the practice of medicine, even if no doctor-patient
relationship is created nor any treatment provided.
Not all acts constituting the practice of medicine by physicians not licensed
in that state, however, are necessarily proscribed by state regulatory schemes.
State medical licensure laws contain a number of exceptions permitting the
practice of medicine without an in-state license. For example, the Maryland
Medical Practice Act4
provides for the following relevant exceptions for out-of-state physicians who
may temporarily practice medicine without a license:
(2) A physician licensed by and residing in another jurisdiction, while
engaging in consultation with a physician licensed in this State;
(4) A physician who resides in and is authorized to practice medicine by any
state adjoining the State and whose practice extends into this State, if: (i)
The physician does not have an office or other regularly appointed place in this
State to meet patients; and (ii) The same privileges are extended to licensed
physicians of this State by the adjoining state.
The exception for a physician licensed in another state who consults with a
physician licensed in the state is not difficult to satisfy, but it may add
expense for the retaining attorney and raise undesired questions about the
believability of the nonresident "consulting physician." Most states allow a
physician who is licensed in another jurisdiction to conduct an examination
under the supervision of or in consultation with a locally licensed physician.
Whenever possible, the simplest solution is to have the out-of-state litigant
travel to the forensic psychiatrist's office for the examination.
Many states make exception for physicians from adjoining states to practice
medicine through reciprocity arrangements. However, this provision should be
confirmed rather than assumed before entering an adjoining state to conduct an
assessment without a license. Generally, states allow physicians from adjoining
states to conduct examinations under the supervision of or in consultation with
a locally licensed physician or some similar arrangement. The Maryland exception
for physicians practicing in adjoining states that extend into the state where
they are offered as an expert seems likely to present fewer problems in the
forensic setting. These issues need to be addressed independently of the
testifying issues. Physicians with multi-state practices in adjoining states are
obligated to address these issues for the conduct of their nonforensic practice.
The practice of psychology, like the practice of medicine, is defined in
relatively similar fashion from state to state. Typical of the definition of
psychological services is the Texas statutory scheme, which includes
"evaluation, prevention, and remediation of psychological, emotional, mental,
interpersonal, learning, and behavioral disorders of individuals and groups."5
Thus, according to the commonly understood usage of this language, evaluating
the mental or emotional condition of a litigant to offer a psycholegal opinion
is the practice of psychology. Although Texas has no provision for an
out-of-state-licensed psychologist to consult with a Texas-licensed
psychologist, it does permit psychologists who are licensed in another state to
obtain a temporary license to practice in Texas.6
Central to resolving the issue of out-of-state licensure is the fundamental
question: do forensic activities constitute the practice of medicine or
psychology? Logically, resolution of this question is fundamental to the
determination of whether licensure within the particular state where the
forensic functions are provided is necessary. Only if forensic activities
constitute the practice of medicine or psychology is licensure a relevant issue;
if licensure is not required for forensic activities, then sanctions for failing
to have an in-state license oddly might befall only those who have bothered to
obtain a license in their home state. Satisfying the licensure requirement of
one's own state but not of another state presents lesser-order concerns than not
satisfying the licensure requirements of any state. Satisfaction of that
licensure requirement, only if even in one's own state, tells us that at least
one agency has considered minimal requirements of education, training, and
character for licensure.
If forensic activities constitute the practice of medicine or psychology, the
impact of these licensing laws on expert witness qualifications is an important
interrelated question. If the expert's field of expertise is subject to
licensing or certification under state law, is licensing or certification a
requirement for qualification as an expert witness? There are two distinct lines
of cases on the relationship between licensing laws and qualifications to offer
expert testimony. One line of cases views the possession of the relevant
professional license as a prerequisite to qualify as an expert witness.7
Under these cases the line is clear: no license, no qualification. This line of
cases is consistent with the state's decision to restrict certain activities to
persons who possess a license and to impose criminal penalties and injunctive
relief on those who perform these activities without a license. Permitting
courts to ignore these licensing schemes in qualifying experts is difficult to
justify on legal or policy grounds. If brain surgery is the practice of
medicine, as one might reasonably conclude, permitting a self-declared brain
surgeon who is not a licensed physician to be qualified as an expert on brain
surgery because the judge or jury can assess the probative value of this
witness' testimony flouts the decision to restrict the practice of medicine to
those who have satisfied the licensure requirements. Whereas licensure alone is
not sufficient to demonstrate the requirements for an expert's
competence/qualifications, the decision to require licensure for those
activities is a decision that licensure is necessary for
competence/qualifications. Licensure is sensibly a floor for finding an expert
qualified in a field that is subject to licensure.
The other line of cases treats licensure and qualification as only loosely
related. These decisions treat qualification of an expert as a question
addressed to the sound discretion of the trial judge, who may consider licensure
as but one of many factors that bear on qualifications including education,
skill, and experience. These cases simply relegate the absence of a license to
practice in the relevant discipline to the weight rather than the admissibility
of the witness' testimony.8 Under this line of cases, the legislative
regulatory schemes for professional practice apply only when they deal directly
with members of the public. Judges retain their common law authority to
determine who may testify as an expert in their courts without regard to
regulatory schemes that prescribe requirements for practicing these professions.
To the extent that these disparate lines of cases share a common understanding
of this issue, it is perhaps best expressed by the following observation of the
Supreme Court of Delaware: "To the extent that licensing is necessary to qualify
as an expert, the requirement extends only to the witness' ability to perform
the evaluation with respect to which he or she is testifying. That is licensing
is necessary to the qualification of experts only where the law requires a
license to perform the evaluation that is being offered in court."9
In some states, at least for psychologists, the relationship between
licensing laws and qualifications for forensic practice is directly addressed by
statute. In Maryland, for example, only a psychologist "licensed under the
`Maryland Psychologists Act' and qualified as an expert witness may testify on
ultimate issues, including insanity, competency to stand trial, and matters
within a psychologist's special knowledge, in any case in any court."10
A psychologist who does not possess the qualifications described in the
licensing act is not qualified as an expert on a defendant's lack of criminal
responsibility.11 Similarly, Illinois has a statutory requirement
that makes registration as a clinical psychologist a qualification for a
psychologist to testify as an expert.12
Thus, these statutes leave little doubt that in these states psychologists
offering testimony must be licensed or face disqualification and criminal
prosecution.
Consultations, Record Reviews, Depositions, and Trials
Jury consultation involves neither diagnosis and treatment nor the
evaluation, prevention, or remediation of a disorder; thus, it should not be
considered the practice of medicine or psychology. Moreover, courts are not
asked to rule on the qualifications of nontestifying jury consultants, and thus
the issue of out-of-state-licensed psychiatrists and psychologists engaging in
forensic practice is unlikely to arise in that setting. Similarly, acting solely
as a consultant to an attorney on strategic decisions or witness preparation
should not be considered the practice of medicine or psychology, as it entails
neither treatment or diagnosis nor the evaluation, prevention, or remediation of
a disorder. The review of medical, psychological, and other health care records
to arrive at psychiatric or psychological conclusions, including diagnoses, for
out-of-state depositions or trials by a psychiatrist or psychologist licensed
only in another jurisdiction is less clear. Deposition or trial testimony itself
is unlikely to be considered medical or psychological practice in most states.
The real issue is the activity(s) that gave rise to that testimony. If the
activity that gave rise to that testimony entails diagnosis or treatment, it
should constitute the practice of medicine, and if the activity entails
evaluation, prevention, or remediation of a disorder, it should constitute the
practice of psychology. Thus, for example, a psychologist not licensed to
practice in Texas, who is retained by the state to assess a sex offender's
potential to benefit from a treatment program, is engaged in the evaluation,
prevention, or remediation of a disorder. These acts constitute the practice of
psychology for which a Texas license is required. Alternatively, if these
activities are performed in another state in which the psychologist is licensed
and the psychologist simply presents by deposition or live testimony the results
of that out-of-state practice, local licensing requirements are unlikely to
preclude the admission of such testimony.13
These distinctions are not always applied as one might expect, however. In
Virginia, for example, the "practice of clinical psychology" is statutorily
defined to include "rendering expert psychological or clinical psychological
opinion."14 The definition of medical practice for physicians in
Virginia does not contain any equivalent reference to forensic practice.15
Curiously, in
Fowler v. City of Manassas Department of Social Services,16
a decision that did not make reference to the definition of the practice of
psychology as including rendering expert opinions, the Virginia Court of Appeals
rejected the appellant's contention that the trial court erred by allowing into
evidence the testimony of the psychologist who had conducted an evaluation
without a license to practice in Virginia. The psychologist evaluated two
children in a termination of parental rights suit. The appellate court stated:
"We find neither authority nor need for an additional requirement that an
otherwise qualified professional called as an expert witness must be licensed to
practice in Virginia."17
The psychiatrist or psychologist licensed in another jurisdiction who
examines a litigant without prior appropriate arrangements may not encounter
difficulties at deposition. At the time of trial, however, the psychiatrist or
psychologist may be challenged for violating the state's medical or
psychological practice laws. In other instances, opposing counsel will challenge
the unlicensed out-of-state expert through a pretrial motion.
Consequences
In one unreported case, the prosecution accused a forensic clinical social
worker, offered by the defense in the sentencing phase of a capital murder case,
of committing a misdemeanor by examining the defendant and collateral witnesses
without an in-state clinical social work license.18 The judge
"resolved" the issue by ordering the witness to evaluate the defendant and his
family members. However, the order raises an interesting question whether the
judge's order was valid in light of the state's licensing requirements.
If the psychiatrist or psychologist is found to have violated the licensure
laws of the state where he or she is performing forensic services, civil
penalties may be imposed or criminal charges filed. Penalties imposed for
licensure violations are reported to the National Practitioner Data Bank.
Disciplinary actions may be brought against the psychiatrist or psychologist in
the state where he or she is licensed to practice.
The psychiatrist or psychologist who performs forensic services in a state in
which he or she is not licensed risks suit for negligence or fraud. Although
this outcome may seem far-fetched, the incidence of malpractice claims against
experts is increasing.19 The risks associated with these claims are
exacerbated when forensic services are performed in a state where the expert is
not licensed. Professional liability insurance policies may not provide coverage
for malpractice claims against psychiatrists or psychologists who are found to
be practicing without a license. The Professional Liability Insurance Policy20
sponsored by the American Psychiatric Association excludes "]a]ny claim arising
out of a Medical Incident which took place or is alleged to have taken place
while the Insured's license or certification to practice or dispense controlled
substances was suspended, revoked, terminated or surrendered or from acts
committed in violation of a license or permit restriction." This language
appears to be fairly standard in professional liability insurance policies,
excluding coverage for claims made while practicing without a license.
Risk Management
It is a relatively simple matter to avoid the anguish and turmoil of summary
dismissal from a case or the professional and legal consequences of unwittingly
practicing without an in-state license. Obviously, the first step is to
recognize that performing an unlicensed, out-of-state psychiatric or
psychological examination can have adverse professional and legal consequences.
The forensic psychiatrist or psychologist should openly discuss the problem of
licensure with the out of state attorney at the time of retention. The attorney,
who may be unaware that potential licensure problems exist, should investigate
the legal issues surrounding an unlicensed, out-of-state examination. Often a
local physician or psychologist has been retained by the attorney. Although
contrived, the local physician can legitimately request a consultation from the
out-of-state psychiatrist, just as the local psychologist can request a
consultation for the out-of-state psychologist. Some supervisory arrangements
can be problematic; for example, a general physician does not have the training
to supervise a psychiatrist, and a supervisory relationship arranged with a
local psychiatrist could be exploited by opposing counsel as a sham transaction.
Retention and consultation with an attorney alone will not be likely to meet a
state's licensure exemption clause for a physician licensed in another state to
practice medicine in that state.
The forensic psychiatrist or psychologist should request a copy of the
relevant state practice code to study the definition of medical or psychological
practice and the relevant exceptions for out of state practitioners. Expansive
definitions may include various aspects of forensic practice, thus requiring the
practitioner to obtain a license or an exemption for services other than an
examination. Adherence to the state's practice code will preempt the charges and
complications of practicing without a license. However, merely obtaining the
litigant's consent to an examination that also contains a statement that no
doctor-patient relationship is being created will not immunize the psychiatrist
from licensure civil and criminal penalties, as these requirements are not
contractually based but stem from the state's police power to protect its
citizenry from incompetent or unqualified practitioners.
If the court requests the out-of-state psychiatrist or psychologist to
conduct an examination, the expert should disclose his or her licensure status
and seek a ruling on the applicability of state licensing laws to the provision
of the expert testimony. Similar precautions apply for psychiatric or
psychological examinations conducted in out-of-state jails and prisons.
Clarification of licensure issues should be sought from the corrections
authorities through the licensing agency or the state's attorney general.
Conclusions
The fast-growing subspecialties of forensic psychiatry and psychology are
stimulating and challenging. However, they are also full of pitfalls for the
unwary. Conducting out-of-state examinations or even providing testimony without
possessing a license to practice in that state means risking adverse
professional and legal consequences. The awareness that licensure problems may
exist and that there are appropriate ways to conduct out-of-state examinations
without incurring legal violations provides a ready tool for limiting the
forensic psychiatrist and psychologist's risk exposure.
Perhaps the more perplexing questions relate to the position that courts,
legislatures, and regulatory agencies should take on these issues. If satisfying
these state licensing requirements is at best a revenue measure or an attempt to
limit out-of-state competition while not addressing the quality of the resultant
testimony, we should not ultimately expect courts to regard this issue
seriously. Alternatively, if the legislature and regulatory agencies take
seriously the policing of mental health professionals' forensic as well as
therapeutic activities, there is reason to expect more than a pro forma
response from the courts.
References
1. Greenberg SA, Shuman DW: Irreconcilable conflict between therapeutic and
forensic roles. J Prof Psychol Res Pract 29:50-57, 1997
2. U.S.C. sec. 1320a-7e(g)(1)(A)(i)-(v)) (1994)
3. Maryland Medical Practice Act and Related Regulations, Health
Organizations, sec. 14-101 (Michie 1997)
4. Maryland Medical Practice Act and Related Regulations, Health
Organizations, sec. 14-302 (Michie 1997)
5. Tex. Rev. Civ. Stat. Ann sec. 4512c sec. 2c (Vernon Supp. 1998)
6. Id. at 15A
7. Shuman DW: Psychiatric and Psychological Evidence. Deerfield, IL: Clark
Boardman Callaghan, 1994
8. In the Interest of C.W.D., 501 S.E.2d 232 (Ga. 1988)
9. Young v. Division of Family Services, 703 A.2d 645 (Del. 1997)
10. Md. Code Ann. Cts. & Jud. Proc. sec. 9-120 (1989)
11. State v. Bricker, 581 A.2d 9, 13 (Md. 1990)
12. People v. McDarrah, 529 N.E.2d 808 (Ill. App. Ct. 1988)
13. Herbert v. Travelers Indemnity Co., 239 So.2d 367, 371 (La. Ct. App.
1970)
14. Code of Virginia, Title 54.1: Professions and Occupations. Subtitle III.
Professions and Occupations Regulated by Boards Within the Department of Health
Professions. Ch. 36, Psychology. sec. 54.1-3600 (Michie 1997)
15. Id. at sec. 54.1-2900
16. No. 0878-94-4, 1995 WL 16575, at 2 (Va. Ct. App., Jan. 17, 1995)
17. Luepker ET, personal communication, Oct. 26, 1998
18. Supra Ref. 16 at *3
19. Weinstock R, Garrick T: Is liability possible for forensic psychiatrists?
Bull Am Acad Psychiatry Law 23:183-193, 1995
20. Legion Insurance Company: Professional Liability Insurance Policy:
Claims-Made Form No. 470023. Arlington, VA: Legion Insurance Company, April
1997, p 6
Dr. Simon is Clinical Professor of Psychiatry and Director, Program in
Psychiatry and Law, Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, DC. D.
W. Shuman is Professor of Law, School of Law, Southern Methodist University,
Dallas, TX. Address correspondence to: Robert I. Simon, MD, 7921-D Glenbrook
Rd., Bethesda, MD 20814-2441; E-mail: RISIMON@ix.netcom.com.
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